Effects of a positive discipline program on parenting outcomes

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Evaluating the Positive Discipline in Everyday Parenting (PDEP) Program: A Quasi-Experimental Study

Abstract

Background

Parental use of punishment remains a significant concern considering its prevalence and negative impacts on children’s well-being. Positive Discipline in Everyday Parenting (PDEP) is a group-based program aimed at helping parents shift away from the use of punitive parenting practices toward positive discipline.

Objective

This quasi-experimental PDEP evaluation examined self-reported parenting practices in a Canadian sample of 183 parents of children aged 2–6 years.

Participants and Setting

There were 101 parents in the experimental condition, and 82 parents in the wait-list comparison group.

Methods

Data were collected as part of a larger Canadian project spanning five data collection cycles (2018–2019 until 2023–2024) and gathered information on PDEP outcomes through a variety of methods.

Results

Compared with the wait-list group, parents who completed PDEP reported a statistically significant decrease in:

  • Physical punishment use (e.g., spanking) – large effect size
  • Emotional punishment (e.g., making child sit alone in corner or another room; taking away an activity) – small effect size

And a significant increase in:

  • Proactive parenting (e.g., preparing child for an activity; explaining the reason for a request) – large effect size

These improvements were maintained from pre- to post-program and from pre-program to 1-month follow-up.

Conclusions

This first experimental evaluation of PDEP, which is fundamentally different from behavior management interventions, indicates that the program was effective in reducing parental use of punishment-based practices and increasing proactive parenting. Additional research is warranted that uses a fully randomized design and that examines parenting effects in ways that complement self-report measures.

Keywords: Discipline, Parenting, Intervention, Program, Evaluation

1. The Positive Discipline in Everyday Parenting (PDEP) Program

The aim of this study was to evaluate changes in self-reported parenting practices following completion of the Positive Discipline in Everyday Parenting (PDEP) program. PDEP aims to help parents move away from child punishment and toward positive disciplinary practices that emphasize mentorship and scaffolding of children’s learning.

Key Program Features

  • Developmental/Constructivist Approach: Focuses on understanding children’s behavior through a developmental lens rather than as “misbehavior” to be eliminated
  • Rights-Based Framework: Based on the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child
  • Mentorship Model: Parents act as experienced guides who support children’s learning and development
  • Global Implementation: Successfully implemented in over 30 countries with over 7,000 caregivers

Program Structure

Format: 8 weekly, 2-hour interactive group sessions

Core Components (PDEP Model):

  1. Focusing on long-term goals
  2. Ensuring physical and emotional safety (“warmth”)
  3. Gradually scaffolding child’s learning (“structure”)
  4. Understanding how children think and feel
  5. Problem-solving rather than punishing in moments of conflict

1.1 Child Punishment Context

PDEP aims to shift parents away from physical and emotional punishment on two bases:

1. Rights-based: Punishment violates children’s rights to protection from all forms of physical and mental violence, as stated in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child.

2. Evidence-based: Solid evidence demonstrates the detrimental impact of punishment on children’s development, well-being, and functioning on both short- and longer-term basis.

Physical punishment (particularly spanking) has been associated with:

  • Greater aggression and mental health problems in childhood
  • More negative parent-child relationships
  • Greater risk of physical abuse from parents
  • Greater antisocial behavior and mental health problems in adulthood

Emotional punishment includes yelling, threatening, shaming, isolating (e.g., time-outs), ignoring emotional needs, and removing valued activities. Research shows associations with depressive disorders, substance use, risky behaviors, and other negative outcomes.

2. Method

2.1 Participants and Procedures

Sample: 183 Canadian parents of children aged 2-6 years

  • 101 parents in experimental group
  • 82 parents in wait-list comparison group

Data Collection: 5 cycles from 2018-2024 (COVID pause in 2020-2021)

Settings: 10 early childhood and family agencies across Canada

Delivery: In-person before pandemic, hybrid format afterward

Languages: English and French

Sample Demographics

Characteristic Total Sample (%)
Average age 35.2 years (range 19-56)
Female 85.2%
Married/partnered 83.6%
White ethnicity 66.3%
English speaking at home 71.0%
Post-secondary education 78.2%
Household income <$50,000 CAD 35.2%

2.2 Measures

Parenting Behaviors Scale: 16 items measuring parenting practices over previous 2 weeks

  • Physical punishment (3 items): hitting, spanking, shaking, pulling hair/ears
  • Emotional punishment (5 items): yelling, threatening, isolation, removing activities
  • Positive discipline (8 items): listening, explaining, problem-solving, self-regulation

Parenting Young Children Questionnaire: Additional positive parenting behaviors

  • Supportive parenting (6 items): teaching, playing, involving child
  • Proactive parenting (6 items): preventing problem behaviors, planning ahead
  • Setting limits (4 items): communicating expectations and responsibilities

3. Results

Key Findings

Physical Punishment:

  • Experimental group: 20.8% → 7.2% → 3.0% (pre → post → 1-month follow-up)
  • Wait-list group: 9.9% → 18.6% → 7.7%
  • Effect size: Large (Cohen’s d = 3.49 at post, 2.77 at follow-up)

Emotional Punishment:

  • Significant decrease for PDEP group compared to wait-list
  • Effect size: Small (Cohen’s d = 0.25-0.27)

Proactive Parenting:

  • Significant increase for PDEP group compared to wait-list
  • Effect size: Large (Cohen’s d = 2.03)

Other Measures: No significant differences found for supportive parenting, limit setting, or positive discipline between groups.

Statistical Analysis

A two-way repeated-measures MANOVA was performed across five continuous outcome variables, which was significant (F(10, 102) = 3.10, p = .005). Subsequent univariate analyses showed significant time × group effects for emotional punishment and proactive parenting.

4. Discussion

This quasi-experimental evaluation of PDEP demonstrates that the program was effective in achieving its primary goals of reducing punishment-based practices and increasing positive parenting approaches.

Program Effectiveness

  • Significant reductions in both physical and emotional punishment
  • Meaningful increases in proactive parenting practices
  • Sustained benefits at 1-month follow-up
  • Large effect sizes for key outcomes despite low baseline punishment levels

Comparison with Other Programs

PDEP adds to the repertoire of existing group-based interventions in unique ways:

  • Rights-based approach: Explicitly introduces UN Convention on Rights of the Child
  • Developmental focus: Emphasizes understanding child development vs. behavior modification
  • Global applicability: Successfully implemented across 30+ countries
  • Age range: Appropriate for children birth to 18 years
  • Conceptual difference: Mentorship model vs. behavioral reward/consequence systems

4.1 Limitations and Future Research

Study Limitations

  1. Quasi-experimental design: Not fully randomized (ethical considerations in community settings)
  2. Attrition: Participant loss over time despite compensation
  3. Self-report measures: Potential for bias; need for behavioral observations
  4. Measure validation: PDEP parenting measure needs further psychometric testing

Future Research Directions

  • Fully randomized controlled trial when ethically feasible
  • Objective measures of parenting behavior (audio recordings, observations)
  • Dismantling studies to identify most effective program components
  • Testing theoretical models of change (mediators/moderators)
  • Examination of delivery methods (in-person vs. virtual vs. hybrid)

Conclusion

This first experimental evaluation of PDEP provides strong evidence for its effectiveness in reducing parental use of punishment and increasing positive parenting practices. Given the well-documented harms of child punishment and increasing global calls to end physical and emotional punishment of children, PDEP represents a valuable, evidence-based intervention that can contribute to this important child protection goal.

The program’s unique rights-based, developmental approach offers a conceptually different alternative to behavioral management programs, with demonstrated effectiveness across diverse cultural contexts globally.

Bottom Line: PDEP effectively helps parents reduce punishment and increase positive parenting practices, with benefits maintained over time. The program shows particular promise for addressing the global need to protect children from all forms of violence.